Part Nine: Recapping the transformative shift from the dominance of religious validation in early societies to the secularization of norms in contemporary society.
In the first few blogs on SAT, we explored its definition, purpose, and applications across various societal contexts, attempting to develop a flexible framework for understanding how societal validation influences both our individual and collective identities we started to unpack the historical origins of culture and the feedback loops that allow norms, behaviors and values to be exchanged, sustained, and rejected over different cultures and generations.
Today, we're turning our focus to religious beliefs and institutions, tracing their origins and examining how they have been shaped and sustained through processes of cultural transmission. Forewarning, this is going to be another long one!
Pulling insights from my other SAT posts on culture (part 5), language (part 6), knowledge (part 7), and media (part 8), we'll try to see how different religious beliefs began to develop, how they spread across different cultures and generations, and how religious leaders and institutions have historically been powerful agents of social validation and sanctions.
I feel like it needs to be said that I'm not against any religions and the purpose of this blog is not to attack or belittle anyone's beliefs or spiritual practices. I hope that as you read through this, you can keep an open mind, and maybe even develop a better understanding of how religious beliefs shape your identity and our societies and why cultural norms centered around religious faith have changed so drastically in contemporary societies.
I'm not trying to moralize, romanticize, or rationalize any particular beliefs as being true or false or real or make-believe, but instead focusing on the social dynamics that allow people to have, sustain and challenge these beliefs. I'm also going to use terms like myths or stories interchangeably with religious narratives a lot here, so please understand that I'm not downplaying the validity of any beliefs by calling them myths or stories. If you've read the last couple of blog posts, then you should understand what I mean when I use these words.
I really want to show how through centuries of cultural transmission, humanity's established religions have given us explicit frameworks for understanding the world, our moral behavior, and various societal norms.
But, through examining the evolving processes of social accreditation, we'll also see how religious norms and values have undergone significant changes in mainstream contemporary society and why religious cultural norms are implicitly now viewed by many people in a negative light.
Although I'm trying to incorporate context and examples from various religious narratives throughout human history, my personal upbringing revolved around attending Christian Baptist churches and i'm obviously writing from the biased perspective of an American so my focus will mainly be on how Protestant Christian values rose to become symbolic of the "traditional American family".
Just like with the last post, this one is pretty long so I've broken it up into seperate sections for you to read and revisit at your own pace. It's kind of four different blogs in one, but they all connect and build off of each other I think the length of these posts is likely going to keep increasing as I continue, partly because I have a lot to say, but also because I think i'm getting better at putting these together! (it's a feedback loop!)
The Social Origins of Religious Mythologies and the Human Brain's Capacity to Entertain Them
Back in part seven, I explained the significance of René Descartes and introduced the concept of dualism, that is the idea that our immaterial minds and our material bodies are uniquely different from each other. Dualism affects our capacity for religious beliefs because it allows our minds to entertain thoughts, feelings, and ideas that can be distinct and separate from our bodies and the physical world.
Combining this observation with what we also learned from Goffman’s work on natural and social frameworks, we can see how our religious ideas are made possible thanks to this dualistic capacity for understanding. A special part of being a human being is that we can perceive things like spirits that exist and survive without bodies, gods or abstract forces that govern the rules of space-time, and even ethereal realms and dimensions that exist outside our observable physical reality.
I also mentioned in part seven, that prior to the Scientific Revolution and the rise of the scientific method, cultural knowledge was mostly shared through scholarly traditions of philosophy and religious doctrines. Ancient philosophers, theologians, shamans, and monks were all uniquely responsible for crafting and recounting the cultural narratives that illustrated the mythological explanations for existence, gods, and the cosmos.
In our previous discussions on narratives, particularly in part six, we explored how myths have historically served as a social glue that fostered a collective identity and continuity within early societies. We also talked about memes in part eight, discovering how they influence which ideas and behaviors become popular or socially accredited by spreading from people to people through processes of cultural transmission.
As language and culture began to connect people across different tribes and generations, ancient civilizations like those of certain Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures crafted elaborate myths to help explain natural phenomena and the mysteries of the universe, these ideas then spread like memes across different generations and cultures, sometimes as stories, dialogues, testaments, paintings, sculptures, and other art mediums.
These myths weren't just stories though. They were imbued with interpretive explanations for the mysterious circumstances of our existence within the context of social knowledge respective to their era and culture. They helped to normalize and legitimize the religious practices and beliefs that would then become ingrained in the societal norms and values of future civilizations.
Creation myths, or cosmogonies, are fundamental narratives found in nearly every culture around the world. These stories explain the origins of the universe, the earth, and human beings, serving as a foundational framework for understanding our existence. The Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible presents a creation story where God creates the world in six days and rests on the seventh. This narrative establishes a divine order and provides a theological foundation for the Abrahamic religions, Judaism, Islam and Christianity.
Theoretical work by Mircea Eliade, a historian of religion, provides a nice, comprehensive lens to explore the psychological, literary, social, structural, and political aspects of these myths. Eliade emphasizes the structural elements of creation myths, noting their recurring patterns and themes. These myths often follow a pattern where a primordial chaos is transformed into an ordered cosmos (Voth, 2010).
Creation myths also fulfill a deep psychological need for understanding and meaning. They address existential questions about our origins and purpose, providing us with a sense of identity and place in this chaotic and vast universe.
As another example, the Enuma Elish is a Babylonian creation myth that dates all the way back to the second millennium BCE. It describes the battle between the god Marduk and the chaos monster Tiamat. Marduk’s victory and subsequent creation of the world from Tiamat’s body symbolized the triumph of order over chaos. This structure mirrors the human need to impose order on the world and reflects the universal quest for understanding and control (Voth).
Hesiod’s Theogony, written around the 8th century BCE, outlines the genealogy of the Greek gods and the creation of the world. It begins with Chaos, followed by the emergence of Gaia (Earth), Tartarus (the Underworld), and Eros (Love), highlighting the generative forces that shape the cosmos. By articulating the transition from chaos to order, these myths offer a framework for dealing with the uncertainties and anxieties of life's mysteries (Voth).
Despite the rise of scientific explanations for the origins of the universe, creation myths are still very relevant in contemporary society. They continue to shape our cultural identities and they still influence modern narratives in literature, film, and other media. Recalling the nature of remix culture that we discussed in part eight, contemporary works in media draw on ancient creation myths to explore modern themes and issues. Films like “The Matrix” or "Marvel's Eternals" and novels like “American Gods” by Neil Gaiman or Rick Riordan's "Percy Jackson and the Olympians" reinterpret these myths, offering new perspectives on older ideas of existence, deities and the human experience.
In addition to cosmogonies, the ancient world also saw the emergence of disciplines like astronomy and astrology, where the observation of the cosmos and celestial bodies wasn't a scientific endeavor but a religious one. The stars, planets, and other celestial phenomena were seen and interpreted by people as divine manifestations or messages from the gods.
Astronomy, as a systematic study of celestial bodies, began with Assyro-Babylonian culture in ancient Mesopotamia. Ancient astronomers recorded the movements of stars and planets, creating early calendars and predicting celestial events. These observations made sense for early agricultural societies, as they relied on accurate calendars for planting and harvesting crops.
Naming stars and labeling groups of stars as constellations helped to navigate and identify the cosmos explicitly, but also implicitly allowed us to relate stories from our lives to observations and interpretations of the mysteries of the greater universe.
The North Star, Polaris, has its own mythology in different cultures. According to Mongolian myth, it was said to be a peg that held the world together. In Norse mythology, it's thought of as a jewel on the end of a spike that the gods stuck through the universe and around which the entire sky revolves. Because it's visible to the naked eye, and has a stable position in the North Pole of the sky, it's been useful for navigation by explorers and sailors throughout pretty much all of our recorded history.
Importantly, we also used celestial objects and events to track or recount divine moments within religious mythologies. For example, the Star of Bethlehem is an important part of the nativity of Jesus Christ. In the story of Jesus' birth, three wise magi from the East followed the star as they traveled to Jerusalem, where they bestowed baby Jesus with gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh.
Astrology, emerging alongside explicit markers of astronomical recognition, involved interpreting celestial events as divine messages. This practice was also widespread in ancient Mesopotamia, where priests would interpret the movements of planets and stars in attempts to predict the future and divine the will of the gods.
Astrology gave people a framework for understanding human destiny and the greater forces at play in the cosmos, thereby reinforcing the social and religious order. The Zodiac, which also originated in Babylonian astrology, shows how celestial phenomena were used to explain different earthly events and human behavior.
Our ability to anthropomorphize, or see human-like qualities in non-human entities, allows us to project our social frameworks onto natural frameworks. Seeing faces in the clouds, shapes in the stars or hearing voices in the winds helped us make sense of the natural world, and develop theories and predictions for how things work.
When combined with dualism, we can see that there is a social feedback loop involved with these cognitive processes, where we can detach our self and minds from physical objects like our body (dualism) but also have an ability to infer a sense of self-agency and intention to natural occurrences in an attempt to give purpose and selfhood to natural things (anthropomorphism).
So we can also see this in practices, like in the Abrahamic religions where we can imagine abstract forces and believe in non-physical entities like a soul, god, angels, and demons but we can also think about God as a human-like being that can be prayed to, asked for forgiveness, etc (Norenzayan, 2024).
In the Judeo-Christian Bible, for example, God is sometimes depicted as angry, but also said to be empathetic, he's described as merciful, but still judgmental, loving, and also jealous. We project these personal features onto an abstract idea and God becomes an anthropomorphic being. Even the gendered pronouns we use to describe God reflect this process.
The Bible explicitly addresses this by saying that God created humans in his own image. This kind of mentality allows us to have a relationship with God, not as an abstract force, but as a supernatural being with human-like capabilities. In this way, humans also create God in their own image. This cognitive framework helped early societies develop and maintain their elaborate myths and religious practices.
For example, attributing the cause of a violent storm to the anger of a storm god gave people a comprehensible reason for explaining chaotic patterns in the weather, this reduced their uncertainty and fostered a sense of control over their environment. But it also created a sense of agency, where their new understanding of the storm might tell them what to do, perhaps to appease the god with a sacrifice or ritual, or how to feel, maybe believing the storm was penance for a lack of faith or discipline.
Émile Durkheim’s concept of the sacred helps us understand this phenomenon. Durkheim proposed that the sacred encompasses certain elements set apart from the ordinary, which are specially imbued with a sense of reverence and awe. By anthropomorphizing deities and attributing sacred qualities to natural phenomena and objects, ancient societies could create a moral and social order that bound communities together (Durkheim, 1912).
In this context, the sacred storm god and the associated rituals to appease them represent Durkheim’s idea of the collective effervescence—the communal energy and unity generated during shared religious practices. This collective experience reinforced social cohesion and provided communities with a shared cultural framework for interpreting and responding to the world around them.
From this perspective, we can see how early religious beliefs and practices weren't just attempts to explain the natural world but were also essential in maintaining social order and community solidarity. Although this type of thinking was extremely helpful for ancient and prehistoric civilizations, its premise can also be based on a logical fallacy.
The Divine fallacy, also known as the “argument from incredulity” or “appeal to the supernatural,” occurs when someone argues that because something is difficult to understand or explain, it must be attributed to a divine or supernatural cause.
This fallacy reflects the cognitive capacity to think in dualistic terms by assigning supernatural explanations to phenomena that defy our natural understanding, and also utilizes anthropomorphic thinking by attributing human-like qualities and intentions to the divine to explain unexplained phenomena, both reinforcing the separation between the natural and the divine and making the divine more relatable and understandable (Shatz, 2024).
Mysticism involves seeking a direct, personal experience of the divine or ultimate reality. Mystics aim to transcend the ordinary experiences of life to achieve union with the divine or the ultimate truth. They seek to transcend the physical body and experience the spiritual realm directly, again emphasizing the separation of the material and spiritual.
When mystics implicitly experience something that defies rational explanation, they explicitly attribute it to direct contact with the divine. This can be seen as a form of the Divine fallacy, as it resorts to a supernatural explanation for experiences that are otherwise difficult to articulate or understand. This can also lead to self-fulfilling prophecies, where mystics, seeking spiritual enlightenment through divine inner experiences, can attribute any unknown or new personal experiences to the sacred or divine and call that enlightenment.
Mystic practices typically include meditation, contemplation, and other forms of spiritual exercises. The 13th century poet and Sufi mystic, Rumi often personified the divine in his poetry, portraying God with human emotions and characteristics. Rumi’s poetry and teachings emphasize the soul’s longing for union with the divine and his work reflects the separation of the material and spiritual, aiming to transcend the ego and worldly desires to merge with the divine (Rumi, 2011).
"When in the heart of a people there is spiritual perception, the face and voice of the prophet are as an evidentiary miracle.
When the prophet utters a cry from without, the soul of the people falls to worship within,
Because never in the world will the soul's ear have heard a cry of the same kind as his.
That wondrous voice is heard by the soul in exile- the voice of God calling, 'Lo, I am nigh'" "Mystics Know" by RumiOn the other hand, Asceticism, the practice of severe self-discipline and abstention from all forms of indulgence, also highlights the framing feedback loop between dualism and anthropomorphism. Ascetics believe that by denying their body and its desires, they can achieve a higher spiritual state. This belief is rooted in the dualistic notion that the mind or spirit is distinct and can be purified through practices that control or deny the physical body.
Anthropomorphism plays a role here as well. Ascetics model their behavior on the lives of deities or other religious figures who are depicted with human qualities but are also seen as having transcended human weaknesses. By emulating these figures, ascetics believe they can attain a similar state of spiritual purity and connection to the divine. This also creates a recursive loop: the more ascetics model their behavior on these anthropomorphized figures, the more these figures are reinforced as ideal representations of the divine.
The reasoning behind this feedback loop can also be understood through the Divine Command Theory, which is an ethical assertion that what is moral is determined by God's commands and that for a person to be moral (s)he is to follow God's commands.
This theory has been challenged by philosophers and thinkers dating all the way back to the famous dilemma from Plato’s dialogue “Euthyphro,” where Socrates poses a question to Euthyphro about the nature of piety (Plato, 2002).
Socrates' Question: “Is something pious because the gods love it, or do the gods love it because it is pious?”
Two Horns of the Dilemma:
1. If something is pious because the gods love it, then morality is arbitrary, depending solely on the whims of the gods.
2. If the gods love something because its pious, then there are standards of morality independent of the gods, suggesting that morality doesn't just originate from divine commands but rather that the gods recognize and adhere to these objective standards.
The Euthyphro dilemma challenges the Divine Command Theory by questioning whether morality is an independent, abstract realm of truths (suggesting a dualistic separation between moral truths and divine will) or if its solely defined by God’s commands (potentially collapsing the distinction but still engaging with the idea that morality could either be a separate realm or directly linked to divine authority).
Since ascetics base their practices on what they believe to be divine commands or religious teachings, the Euthyphro dilemma comes into play when considering whether these practices are inherently good or if they're only viewed as good because they're believed to be commanded by the divine.
In this way, the dilemma itself can be seen as emerging from anthropomorphic thinking. By questioning whether something is good because God loves it or if God loves something because it's good, it assumes that God has human-like evaluative processes and moral reasoning. The dilemma treats the divine in terms that are relatable to human cognitive processes, suggesting that moral values and divine preferences can be understood similarly to human judgments and decisions.
Social accreditation in either mystical experiences or ascetic discipline strengthens the dualistic belief in the separation and interaction of the spiritual and material realms, and the personal nature of spiritual challenges and goals. This cognitive feedback loop shapes the practices and experiences of followers, reinforcing their beliefs in a dualistic yet anthropomorphized spiritual reality, and relieving any dissonance or uncertainty that might've come from experiencing suffering or life's misfortunes in the earthly realm.
The story of Job from the Bible offers a great example of how this loop works to sustain and reinforce spiritual beliefs. Job is depicted as a righteous man who faces severe trials, losing his wealth, health, and family. Throughout his suffering, Job remains steadfast in his faith, refusing to curse God or denounce his beliefs.
Job’s dualistic belief in a just and omnipotent God enabled him to maintain his faith in the face of physical and emotional torment. His anthropomorphic view of God as a being who can understand and respond to human suffering reinforces his hope for divine justice and restoration.
When God finally responds to Job, he doesn't give a direct explanation for Job’s suffering but instead emphasizes the limits of human understanding and the vastness of divine wisdom. This response points to the inscrutable nature of divine will and the limitations of human moral reasoning and it also highlights the tension inherent in the Divine fallacy: the difficulty of humans attempting to understand divine reasons and the tendency to attribute unexplained events to God’s will without any adequate explanation.
Apostasy, or the abandonment of faith, is then presented as a failure to adhere to the social and religious expectations upheld by the community. Job’s endurance and eventual vindication by God validate the social and religious norms that demand his faithfulness and trust in divine justice. His unwavering faith, despite his trials, serves as a testament to how social and religious frameworks can sustain beliefs even under extreme adversity.
Many cultures view the afterlife as a realm where moral actions in life are rewarded or punished. Just as with Job, this belief has strongly guided ethical behavior, encouraging adherence to social norms and laws based on faith. But belief in divine validation can then also be used to justify wars or violence in the name of religion, as combatants may view themselves as fulfilling a divine mandate, leading to prolonged conflicts of "Holy Wars".
The hope for an afterlife provides people and communities with comfort and meaning to cope with the uncertainties and hardships of life in this world. But the belief in rewards in the afterlife for sacrificing one’s life can also encourage martyrdom, leading people to engage in self-destructive or violent acts. For centuries, some cultures have also practiced extreme forms of sacrifice, including human sacrifice, under the belief that it pleases deities or ensures them a favorable afterlife (Bivins, 2018).
The story of Osiris in Egyptian mythology, for example, was central to the Egyptian understanding of the afterlife and the moral order. Osiris's resurrection symbolized the promise of eternal life for the pharaohs and, by extension, all of society. This myth reinforced the divine right of the rulers and also provided a moral framework for society, by accrediting certain behaviors and rituals as pathways to the afterlife.
This myth influenced death rituals, as the Egyptians tried to preserve corpses through processes like mummification, in attempts to protect and aid the deceased in their journeys through the afterlife. Egyptian pyramids are grand structures that served as the final resting place for the pharaohs and were filled with various treasures and possessions that were believed to be needed in the afterlife, this included things like gold, food, amulets, and even sacrificed servants (Martin, 2023).
Death rituals like this served to meet the perceived needs of the dead as they transitioned from the realm of the living, but they also helped those living come to terms with their loss and cut ties with the dead. Because these rituals were reserved for the wealthy and God-chosen pharaohs, this also means that the designing, structural engineering, and building of these large stone mountain burial chambers needed to be subsidized by the resources and labor of the pharaoh's most faithful servants.
Priests and slaves dedicated their entire existence to the designing and constructing of the pyramids because it was believed that if the pharaoh could properly pass through the death transition to be judged by Osiris and welcomed into the paradise within heaven known as the Field of Reeds, then so to would all of his people.
In this manner, the explicit validation of judgment in the eternal afterlife, which was exclusive to the kings, nobles and wealthiest class members, implicitly inspired the development of technological advances and physical capabilities that the rest of humanity began to accept as defining characteristics and qualifications for entry into the next life. As Buckminster Fuller puts it in his book "The Critical Path", "the technological inventiveness of the pharaohs' respective scientist-artist-architects became evolution's comprehensive environment advancers."
Over the course of our history, it became assumed through accreditation processes that everyone now had the opportunity to secure a spot in the afterlife, where their devotion and piety, as demonstrated through the right actions and beliefs in this life, would be acknowledged in the next. The designated representatives of God on Earth (think kings, pharaohs, and priests) then held considerable power by directing and supporting individuals for admission into Heaven, as the alternative was Hell.
Soteriology is the theological study of salvation, which refers to the saving or deliverance of the soul. It's a branch of theology that concerns who is saved, by whom, from what, and by what means. In Christian theology for example, salvation typically means salvation from sin and for Heaven. Soteriological belief in the afterlife thus emerged as the ultimate form of social accreditation in religious societies, providing explicit judgments for either divine validation or eternal sanctions.
Explicitly, with rewards like eternal bliss for the faithful and punishments like eternal damnation for the sinful, religions established clear moral guidelines that influenced everyone's behavior. These guidelines were endorsed by the authority of sacred texts and religious leaders, who were seen as the blessed intermediaries between the sacred and the mortal.
Implicitly, the belief in divine judgment affected people’s behavior through internalized norms and values. The fear of divine retribution and the hope for divine reward influenced people's individual actions, even when there was no external enforcement of these norms. This internalization of religious norms created a self-regulating mechanism within believers, aligning personal behavior with religious expectations.
These mechanisms of accreditation through conformity and validation ensured that religious beliefs and practices were the primary influence for both informational and normative behavior, causing a gradual collective identity and cohesive continuity of societies' culture.
The Importance of Theological Doctrines and the Scholastic Adoption of Sacred Texts and Scriptures
"For whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that through endurance and through the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope." Romans 15:4Sacred texts have been essential in the standardization and accreditation of religious beliefs. Texts like the Bible, the Quran, and the Vedas serve as authoritative sources that codify religious doctrines and guide the spiritual lives of believers.
These doctrines began as oral traditions, stories, and teachings passed down through generations before being committed to writing. The transition from oral to written form marks a significant step in the institutionalization of religious beliefs, that gave us a fixed reference point for many of our religious behaviors and practices.
Translation and transliteration are also necessary in making sacred texts accessible to diverse linguistic and cultural communities. Translation involves converting the text from its original language into another, while transliteration focuses on representing the sounds of the original language in a different script.
For instance, the Bible has been translated into numerous languages over the centuries. The Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, and the Vulgate, a Latin translation by St. Jerome, were instrumental in making biblical texts accessible to broader audiences in the ancient world. Similarly, the Quran has also been translated into many languages, although traditional Islamic teaching holds that the Arabic text is the true Quran, and all translations are merely interpretations.
This is important because both processes involve the difficult task of changing or re-interpreting the context of a text while trying to maintain the meaning of the original narrative. Just like how modern elite groups can influence narratives in media by setting the agenda and framing issues in ways that serve their interests, information in theological doctrines can similarly be filtered to manipulate and shape people's perception and consensus.
Canonization is the process by which certain texts are selected and recognized as authoritative within a religious tradition. This process involves rigorous scrutiny and debate among religious scholars and leaders to determine which writings align with the doctrinal and theological principles of their faith. The decisions made during canonization are deeply influenced by social accreditation mechanisms, both implicit and explicit.
Explicitly, the canonization process is marked by formal councils and synods, where religious leaders deliberate and decide on the texts to be included in the canon. For example, the Councils of Hippo (393 CE) and Carthage (397 CE) were significant in the process of establishing the Christian biblical canon. These formal decisions are a form of explicit validation, conferring legitimacy and authority on the chosen texts.
Implicitly, the acceptance and use of these texts by the broader religious community serve as a form of social validation. As these texts are read, taught, and integrated into religious practice, they gain further legitimacy. Conversely, texts that are not canonized can face implicit sanctions, becoming marginalized or forgotten.
Texts like the Gospel of Mary, the Gospel of Philip, and the Gospel of Judas offer different perspectives on Jesus’ life and teachings and are associated with Gnostic beliefs. These texts were excluded from the canon and early church councils labeled them as heretical. This exclusion was a form of agenda-setting by councils aiming to create a cohesive Christian doctrine that supported the authority of their orthodox church.
In the context of canonization, the church acted as the accrediting body, endorsing certain texts and theological interpretations while rejecting others. By determining which texts were canonical, religious authorities could control theological interpretations. This process reinforced the authority of the church and established a unified religious narrative that shaped societal norms for centuries.
But Church authorities and theologians also interpret canonical texts within the framework of already established doctrines. This meant that their authoritative interpretation could overshadow the original context and intent of the authors, leading to readings that serve the church’s needs rather than reflecting the authors’ original messages.
In part eight, we discussed how authorial intent challenges the interpretations of media. The concept of authorial intent is equally important in the study and interpretation of sacred texts. Understanding the intentions and contexts of the original authors helps scholars and believers discern the meaning and application of religious teachings, further reinforcing the authority of these texts.
Not all sacred stories are meant to be taken literally. The story of Jonah is a powerful narrative with lessons on mercy, repentance, and divine mercy. It can be seen as an allegory for the soul's journey, with Jonah's time in the whale symbolizing introspection and transformation, leading to repetence. Scholars can also contextualize the story within the historical and cultural challenges faced by the Israelites, interpreting it as a call to understand divine justice and mercy beyond national boundaries.
Religious texts gain their legitimacy through both scholastic endorsement and widespread acceptance, shaping the religious landscape and influencing individual and collective identities. The processes of translation, transliteration, and canonization ensure that these texts remain authoritative and relevant across different cultures and historical periods. This creates a feedback loop where texts are studied because of their sacredness and are deemed sacred because religious scholars endorse and study them.
The emergence of the printing press in the 15th century revolutionized the dissemination of religious norms and theological doctrines. Before the printing press, religious texts were copied by hand, which was a laborious process that limited the availability and distribution of these works. The printing press enabled mass production of texts, making sacred scriptures more accessible to the general population.
The printing press also led to the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther’s “Ninety-Five Theses,” printed and distributed widely, challenged the Catholic Church’s practices and doctrines, leading to significant religious and political changes across Europe (more on this later). The ability to print and distribute the Bible in vernacular languages empowered people to read and interpret the scriptures for themselves, reducing the Church’s monopoly on religious knowledge and interpretation.
Other communication technologies, like the telegraph, radio, television, and the internet, came along and further transformed the way religious teachings are disseminated and received. These new technologies allowed for real-time communication and broader reach, enabling religious leaders to spread their messages to global audiences in new mediums.
The "VeggieTales" animated series stars a variety of fruit and vegetable characters like Bob the Tomato and Larry the Cucumber, and they retell stories from the Bible and parody pop culture in an effort to teach Biblical values and lessons to a younger audience.
These advancements in communication technologies have both explicit and implicit impacts on religious accreditation. Explicitly, religious stories and teachings can now be distributed widely and rapidly, receiving immediate validation from a broad audience. Implicitly, the widespread availability and consumption of these lessons and teachings reinforce their authority and influence, as they become integral parts of the daily lives and practices of believers worldwide.
What's critical to understand about this is that the validity and acceptance of religious narratives can be both reinforced and challenged from media exposure. Writers and artists can use forms of media to highlight scenes from religious myths, such as in "The Last Supper" painting, but they can also use works of art and literature to illustrate religious beliefs from a more critical lens. This can lead to religious stories and figures being depicted in satirical or funny ways as people attempt to make light of the beliefs of others.
As people of faith confront these interpretations of their beliefs, they adjust their self-concept based on how they believe others perceive them, this is what we talked about in part three with Cooley's Looking Glass Self. Seeing your beliefs negatively framed (explicit sanctions) through someone else's perspective can cause you to experience cognitive dissonance.
You're then tasked with adjusting your beliefs to receive social validation or doubling-down on your faith like with Job. Although this might be seemingly harmless, choosing to satirize the beliefs of an entire religion can be dangerous and irresponsible, a relevant example being the 2015 Boko Haram attack that saw 12 people killed at the Charlie Hebdo magazine office in France for a political cartoon depicting the Muslim prophet, Muhammad.
The American animated television show "South Park" has often depicted controversial scenes and caricatures of religious figures like Muhammad and Jesus. The controversy surrounding these broadcasts and publishings have given rise to new discussions around freedoms of speech and censorship, which also reflects the changing norms of modernity.
By highlighting these feedback loops and the mechanisms of implicit and explicit validation and sanction, we can better understand how religious narratives achieve and maintain their sacred status. We can also see how these accreditation processes preserve the integrity of religious traditions but can also challenge their relevance and influence across generations.
The Development of the Self and Community Through Religious Beliefs, Rituals, and Places of Worship
In part two, we explained how social processes contribute to our concept of selfhood, using the film "The Breakfast Club" to show how people navigate our social worlds, balancing between conformity and authenticity, to achieve social accreditation (obtaining validation or avoiding sanctions) and construct a coherent sense of self. Now that we understand how religious beliefs emerged culturally, we can use SAT to examine how certain rituals, practices, and places of worship also emerged from implicit and explicit markers of accreditation to help us develop a stable sense of self within our religious communities.
Rituals validate and reinforce our religious beliefs, creating a shared sense of identity and purpose that binds followers together. Through both institutionalization and legitimation, these practices gain formal status, becoming integral to the social structure of their cultures.
Places of worship also significantly influence our personal and collective identities through accreditation mechanisms. These sacred spaces serve as focal points for religious rituals, community gatherings, and spiritual teachings, reinforcing the beliefs and values of their followers by providing a common environment for religious social cues to spread.
These factors guide us in our individual quests for self-identity but the processes of religious accreditation can differ significantly between traditions (like Eastern or Western, or monotheistic and polytheistic), and so can our very concepts of selfhood and community.
For instance, Hinduism and Buddhism emerged in the East emphasizing a cyclical view of life and spiritual progression through practices like meditation and rituals. In contrast, Western religions such as Christianity and Judaism were more focused on linear narratives of salvation and divine commandments. Despite these differences, both spheres use social accreditation to sustain and propagate their beliefs, as individual believers internalize these norms and beliefs to form their identities.
Obviously there are plenty of different religions across the globe, and presumably thousands that have emerged, evolved and ended throughout human history. But I hope that through these examples, you can see how religious frameworks offer believers and followers a common way to understand their existence, purpose, and identity.
Hinduism:
The ancient Hindu concept of the Self, explored in texts like the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita, focuses on the Atman as the eternal essence within individual beings, connected to the ultimate reality Brahman. Understanding this connection leads to Moksha, or liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Advaita Vedanta, a school within Hinduism that focuses on the teachings of the Upanishads emphasizes the unity of Atman and Brahman, and the importance of recognizing this unity for liberation.
Hindu culture also emphasizes living by dharma and understanding karma. Spiritual practices like meditation and yoga are recommended for self-realization and calming the mind. Hindu philosophy promotes introspection, ethical living, and pursuit of truth beyond material aspects of life. Temples are central to Hindu worship and community life. They serve as places for performing rituals, celebrating festivals, and engaging in spiritual practices like meditation and yoga. The architecture and iconography of temples are designed to reflect the cosmos and the divine, reinforcing the religious and cultural identity of the devotees (Wikipedia contributors, 2024c).
Buddhism:
Buddhism deconstructs the notion of a permanent self, focusing instead on the transient nature of existence and the liberation from attachment and suffering. The concept of "Anatta" (Anātman in Sanskrit), meaning "not-self," is at the core of Buddhist philosophy. According to Buddhism, the "self" is a collection of constantly-changing phenomena, including physical forms, perceptions, sensations, mental formations, and consciousness.
Recognizing and comprehending the impermanent nature of existence is crucial to achieving enlightenment. Monasteries provide a space for monks and nuns to live, meditate, and teach. They also serve as centers for people to learn and practice Buddhism. The monastic community embodies the principles of Buddhism, offering a living example of the teachings and contributing to the collective identity of the Buddhist community (Wikipedia contributors, 2024a).
Judaism:
Judaism places great emphasis on the individual's relationship with God and the community. The Hebrew culture's collective identity is highly valued in Jewish thought, but it also recognizes the importance of individual moral responsibility and action. The Jewish concept of the self is shaped by the covenant (Brit) between God and the Jewish people, making the Mitzvot (God's commandments) essential. Living ethically and obeying the law are expressions of one's connection to God and the community.
Jewish teachings encourage individuals to embrace the concept of "Tikkun Olam" or "repairing the world" through acts of kindness and justice, highlighting the individual's role in promoting societal and global well-being. Synagogues are not only places of worship but also centers for community life and education. They host religious services, study sessions, and community events, fostering a strong sense of belonging and shared identity among Jewish people. The synagogue serves as a focal point for observing Jewish laws and traditions (Wikipedia contributors, 2024e).
Christianity:
Christianity teaches that each person is created in the image of God, emphasizing intrinsic human worth and dignity. This belief influences Christian views on self, highlighting the value of life, personal relationships with God, and moral growth. Salvation through faith in Jesus Christ is central to the Christian ethos, guiding personal transformation towards holiness and Christ-likeness.
Christianity also stresses communal identity through the Church as the Body of Christ, nurturing personal identity through relationships and worship. Churches are central to Christian worship and community. They provide a space for communal worship, sacraments, and religious education. The church community supports individual faith development and reinforces the collective identity of Christians through shared beliefs and practices (Wikipedia contributors, 2024b).
Islam:
In Islam, the self (nafs) possesses free will and is accountable for its actions, which are evaluated by Allah. The faith encourages people to submit to Allah's will to attain inner peace and fulfillment. The term "Islam" itself means submission to God. Muslims strive to align their selves with divine will through practices like prayer, charity, and fasting. Self-reflection and awareness are integral to understanding one's faith-related strengths and weaknesses.
The concept of Ummah, or the global Muslim community, plays a vital role in shaping Muslim identity. Membership in the Ummah transcends individual and national identities, emphasizing a shared faith and collective responsibility towards fellow Muslims. Mosques are places for Muslims to perform their daily prayers, attend Friday congregational prayers, and engage in community activities. They also serve as centers for Islamic education and social services. The mosque fosters a sense of unity and shared identity among Muslims, emphasizing their connection to the broader Ummah (Wikipedia contributors, 2024d).
In addition to their role in shaping individual identities, religious institutions and places of worship often serve as the third place in societies, providing a social environment that is distinct from the home (first place) and workplace (second place). The concept of the "third place," introduced by sociologist Ray Oldenburg, refers to spaces where people gather to relax, socialize, and build community (Oldenburg, 1996-97).
Places of worship have historically filled this role by offering a setting for communal activities, social interaction, and support networks. As we see from each of the previous examples; churches, synagogues, mosques, and temples not only function as centers for spiritual practice but also as places where people could connect with others outside of their immediate family and professional circles.
By serving as the third place, these institutions provide more than just spiritual guidance; they offer a vital social function and a supportive network that enhances the well-being of their members. This aspect of religious institutions underscores their importance in society, bridging the gap between our personal faith and communal life, and highlighting their significance in fostering a sense of validation and belonging.
Since religious groups have clear norms and expectations for behavior, conformity to these norms strengthens group cohesion. But deviations from group norms can result in sanctions, ranging anywhere from mild disapproval to excommunication, which helps maintain group integrity but can also foster an “us vs. them” mentality, where in-group members view out-group members as fundamentally different or even inferior.
In part seven, we explained how cognitive dissonance theory suggests that people strive to maintain consistency in their beliefs and attitudes. When encountering out-group members with different beliefs, in-group members may experience discomfort and try to resolve this by reinforcing their own beliefs and denigrating the out-group. This can lead to stereotyping and prejudice because some religious groups are required to perceive their beliefs as superior to others, leading to a sense of moral high ground over out-group members.
Many religious groups engage in proselytization, aiming to convert out-group members to their faith. This can be viewed either as a form of outreach or as an imposition, depending on the context and methods that are used. In some cases, missionary work and proselytization lead to cultural exchange and mutual understanding, while in others, it results in cultural dominance and conflict.
We'll talk more about this in a future post, but the cultural exchanges in missionary work weren't always one-sided and as we'll find out, Western civilizations owe a lot of our so-called social-evolutionary progress to the norms and behaviors that anthropologists and missionaries observed, interpreted and adapted from indigenous tribes and native cultures. In this way, religious groups can either facilitate or hinder social integration, depending on their openness to diversity and their stance on multiculturalism.
As societies continue to evolve, religious practices and rituals can adapt to changing cultural and societal norms. For example, we can look at how marriage, as a social institution, has undergone significant transformations over the centuries, evolving from a sacred religious ritual to a more secular, culturally ingrained norm.
In many cultures, marriage wasn't just a union between two people in a relationship but a sacred covenant blessed by a divine power. For example, in Christianity, marriage is considered a sacrament, a holy union ordained by God, symbolizing the relationship between Christ and the Church.
As technology and civilizations evolved, the institution of marriage began to intersect more deeply with cultural norms and societal structures. The economic, social, and political dimensions of marriage became more pronounced and overtime, marriages served more to strengthen alliances between families, consolidate wealth, and ensure the continuity of higher social status.
With the advent of industrialization and modernity, the secularization of marriage accelerated even further. The legal recognition of marriage began to shift from religious authorities to civil institutions. Governments then established laws regulating marriage, divorce, and inheritance, providing a more secular framework for these unions.
Social movements advocating for individual rights and freedoms also emphasized this new spirit of the secularization of marriage. 20th century feminist movements, for example, challenged traditional gender roles within marriage and the LGBTQ+ rights movement further expanded the definition of marriage to include same-sex unions, emphasizing the secular principle of equality under the law.
Getting married became increasingly viewed as a personal choice based on love and companionship rather than a religious obligation or social duty. As we'll see, cultural shifts like this towards individualism and personal fulfillment have heavily influenced the secularization of religious rituals like marriage.
By understanding this evolution, we can appreciate the diverse ways in which religious traditions continue to be meaningful and relevant in contemporary life. In future posts, I'll try to explore other religious practices that have undergone similar transformations, maybe examining how holidays like Christmas or Easter have integrated with secular and capitalist values to remain significant in our modern world.
The Historical Shift in Social Norms From Religious to Secular Accreditation
In the Middle Ages, collective attitudes around moral principles were heavily influenced by the Church and Monarchy. In these early years, European monasteries and feudal societies began to adopt Greco-Roman ideals and norms, like Christianity, which became legalized by Emperor Constantine in 313 AD and declared to be the official religion of the Roman state in 380 by Theodosius I.
The fall of the Roman empire eventually led to a period known as the Dark Ages. During this time, power became more democratized and there was a fragmentation of political and social structures. New religious movements emerged, like the rise of Islam in the 7th Century and older religions adapted to the changing landscape. Christianity spread throughout Europe and led to a gradual fusion of Roman, Christian and Germanic traditions that would later encapsulate the Anglo-Saxxon identity and culture.
The spread of Christianity wasn't just about religious expansion though. It was also a result of social accreditation mechanisms propagating Christian beliefs and practices. The preservation of Greek and Roman norms as classical civilization led to the church becoming the leading influence in Western civilization, all the way into the modern age. A Christian theology of war also began to emerge in Western Europe as Christianity became linked to Roman citizenship and the idea of a "just war" could be rationalized by authorities like the Roman Catholic Church, as legitimate (Bivins, 2018).
The Crusades, for instance, were as much about asserting religious dominance as they were about political and territorial control. The term "crusade" was first used to refer to military expeditions by European Christians in the 11th - 13th centuries to the Holy Land, or middle-eastern territory now known as the modern states of Israel and Palestine (Harari, 2015).
The People's Crusade was known as the beginning phase of the first Crusade and went on for roughly six months from April to October 1096. It's also known as the Peasants' Crusade or the Popular Crusade because it was executed by a mainly untrained peasant army prior to the main church-organized crusades.
During the feudal era, most people were peasants or serfs living under the harsh conditions of drought, famine, and disease. Their lifestyles were dictated by the feudal system, which reinforced social hierarchies through the notion of the divine right to rule. Monarchs and nobles derived their authority from God, making them answerable only to divine judgment. This theological justification for political power reinforced the social order and discouraged rebellions, as opposing the king was also seen as opposing God’s will.
Over time, the hierarchical structure of medieval and feudal nobility was solidified through this socio-religious order and institutions began to foster a culture of nepotism. Monarchs and nobles frequently appointed their relatives to high-ranking church positions, ensuring that their family retained power and influence. This practice was justified by the belief that noble bloodlines were divinely chosen to lead both secular and spiritual domains.
This hereditary belief structure would go on to influence centuries of violence, war and conflicts, where those born in poor families were conscripted to sacrifice their lives and the lives of their children in the name of their gods, kings or religious leaders, while those born into nobility would continue to inherit intergenerational wealth, status and opportunity. Though it should be noted that not everyone born into royal families were capable or content with the lifestyles given to them by dint of birth, and some people would renounce their families and nobility in pursuit of something greater.
The legendary story of the Buddha tells of a prince named Siddhārtha Gautama being born into the royal family of a notable clan and predicted to either be a Buddha or a great king. His father, opting to raise the young prince to become a great ruler, shielded him from being allowed to see or experience any death or suffering for much of his life, hoping that confining his son to the pleasures and luxuries of the palace would keep him from understanding the realities of the world and pursuing an ascetic life.
One day, Prince Siddhārtha travelled outside of the palace for the first time at the age of 29. As he set off for the city in his chariot, he observed four sights on his journey that would affect him deeply and cause him to contemplate the suffering of all. The four things he saw were an old man (aging), a sick person (disease), a corpse (death), and an acestic. After witnessing the four sights and learning that the first three sights were an inevitable part of every being's life, the Prince returned to his palace, only to renounce his nobility and worldly possessions to become a wandering ascetic and attain enlightenment.
This story is also known as the Great Departure, and its influence is felt across all major religions. Like I mentioned earlier, asceticism is a lifestyle chosen by many of the faithful who believed that abstinence from worldly materials would lead to divine or spiritual validation. The Buddha eventually rejected ascetic practices, and despite criticism from fellow monks, he promoted the Middle Way, avoiding extreme indulgence or deprivation.
But I mention the story here because it's important to understand that the personal quest for spiritual enlightenment can influence people to deviate from intergenerational transmitted norms like inherited wealth and privilege.
Christian nuns and monks like Anthony the Great would emulate this path, renouncing their material wealth and seeking divine truth through solitude and retreat, later forming communities of monasteries with other like-minded Christians. As more people took on the ascetic lives of monks, living alone in the wilderness, they started to come together and model themselves after the other monks nearby.
In Catholic theology, this community-based living, known as monasticism was considered to be divinely superior to normal societies because of the obedience and discipline that was practiced. Scholasticism was a medieval program of philosophy and theology that emerged from monastic schools. These schools became the basis for medieval universities, contributing to the later developments of humanism and modern science.
New state doctrines, like the Magna Carta of 1215, also began to shift power away from the monarchy, prioritizing the individual rights of free men and barons. This kind of governance change paved the way for the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment, which brought even more social and political changes as intellectual life in the modern period began to embrace anti-monarchical thinking and the study of classical antiquity became more widely practiced.
The Renaissance led to a "rediscovery" of Greek/Roman philosophy, political theory, and classic mythology, with more translations of Latin texts, and the influx of widespread literature, this in turn, led to a broader understanding for the common person centered more around public consensus than righteous beliefs. It also led to a re-establishment of colonial empires as new, Greco-Roman-inspired, European nation-states began spreading Christianity across the globe, competing with the Muslim-influenced Ottoman/Turkish empire.
Recalling our discussion on cultural transmission from part 5, I also mentioned how ethnologists, sociologists, and cultural anthropologists from Western civilizations began to emerge, offering new perspectives on cultural studies and social evolution.
I just want to note here that the Eurocentric mindset that dominated the frameworks of these thinkers was also influenced by the cultural observations and social interpretations of missionaries and religious explorers, who's historical records of other cultures and communities reflected social exchanges from the so-called "Age of Discovery" that occurred from the 15th through 17th centuries, where European empires explored, colonized, and conquered other regions across the globe (Graeber & Wengrow, 2021).
This is important because Enlightenment thinkers weren't just reflecting the changing religious social norms, but they were also responding to and critiquing the establishment of their own civilizations' empires in relation to changing worldviews and cultural exchanges with native and indigenous peoples. (We'll talk more about imperialism and colonialism in future posts but just keep this in mind.)
During the Renaissance and Enlightenment periods, thinkers began to employ rational reasoning and empirical methods to justify their religious beliefs and explore existential questions. In the early 17th century, Galileo Galilei used observational astronomy and experimental physics to challenge the commonplace geocentric model of the universe that was endorsed by the Catholic Church. His use of the telescope to gather empirical evidence supported the heliocentric model, demonstrating that scientific inquiry could reveal truths about the natural world that were previously assumed through the divine fallacy.
Around the same time, Francis Bacon, known as the father of empiricism, advocated for the scientific method, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and inductive reasoning as the basis for acquiring knowledge. Bacon’s work laid the groundwork for modern scientific inquiry, arguing that empirical evidence should form the foundation of our understanding rather than relying solely on religious doctrine.
Blaise Pascal’s Wager in the 17th century famously argued that believing in God is a rational bet: if God exists, the believer gains eternal life, and if not, they lose nothing. This pragmatic approach tried to reconcile faith with reason, offering a logical justification for beliefs that were previously accepted by faith alone.
Later, in the 18th century, Thomas Bayes developed Bayes’ Theorem, a fundamental concept in probability theory. As a Presbyterian minister, Bayes sought to understand how humans could rationally make decisions and form beliefs in a world governed by a divine creator. His theorem provides a method for calculating conditional probabilities, or the chances of events happening given the occurrence of other events. Bayes’ insight was to use prior probabilities (initial beliefs) and update them with new evidence to obtain posterior probabilities (revised beliefs). He believed that mathematical principles could help illuminate the different ways we understand and interact with the world, leading to a deeper understanding of divine truths.
Although their studies were influenced by their religious beliefs, the intellectual developments from figures like Galileo, Bacon, Pascal, and Bayes paved the way for a more scientific and rational approach to understanding the world. These advancements marked a significant shift from theological to empirical inquiry, influencing how people approached questions of existence and belief.
In tandem with the ideological development of scientific consensus, rationalism, and empiricism, the erosion of the church’s spiritual authority and widespread disillusionment among the faithful set the stage for significant religious and social upheaval. The nepotism, corruption, and collusion that characterized religious institutions during the feudal era had profound long-term effects on social systems.
As mentioned earlier, the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, led by figures like Martin Luther, was in part a reaction to the corruption and moral decay within the Catholic Church. The growing dissatisfaction with the Catholic Church’s practices, such as the sale of indulgences and clerical corruption, prompted many calls for reform and contributed to the appeal of Protestantism.
This movement not only redefined religious validation but also opened the doors for a new meritocratic ethos where successful personal achievements became intrinsically tied to moral standing. Max Weber’s analysis in “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism” highlights how religious beliefs, particularly those of Protestantism, contributed to the development of modern capitalism by mixing economic success with moral virtue.
Weber argued that Protestantism, especially Calvinism, emphasized hard work and frugality as signs of religious piety. This belief system encouraged people to view economic success as evidence of divine favor. The notion that success is a blessing perpetuated cultural norms that equate wealth with virtue, discouraging any efforts to address systemic inequalities, as individual disparities were viewed as reflecting divine will or personal shortcomings (Weber, 1905).
In a meritocratic society, where success is ideally based on ability and effort, viewing prosperity as a divine blessing implies that those who succeed are more virtuous or favored by God. This can legitimize existing social hierarchies and disparities as both successful and unsuccessful people internalize the belief that they and those around them deserve everything they get. (we'll talk more about the myth of meritocracy and it's effects in capitalist society in another post!)
The Protestant Reformation initiated a lot of societal changes that influenced the emergence of numerous sects and new religious movements, particularly in Europe and the United States. As religious dissenters, seeking freedom from persecution in Europe, had migrated to the American colonies, where the lack of a centralized religious authority in the New World gave them a fertile ground for establishing new, diverse religious communities and movements.
The United States Constitution later enshrined religious freedom as well, allowing for a pluralistic society where numerous religious movements could coexist. This legal and cultural environment made it possible for new religious movements to emerge and grow without fear of state persecution. It's worth noting here that while the constitution explicitly allowed for a freedom to practice religion, implicit sanctions still persisted through forms of discrimination and kept certain people from being able to practice their beliefs openly.
The First and Second Great Awakenings (18th and 19th centuries) were periods of religious revival in the newly founded U.S., characterized by widespread evangelical fervor and the formation of new denominations. Presbyterians, Methodists, Adventists, Baptists and Latter Day Saints to name a few. This kind of diffusion and fragmentation of such foundational beliefs can lead to a state of cognitive dissonance like I mentioned earlier as certain religious beliefs, by definition, require the believer to assume the supremacy of their religion over others.
Some of these sects, along with new esoteric movements, many seen as “cults,” faced a lot of skepticism and hostility from mainstream society because they were perceived as deviant or heretical to the fundamental practices of already established religions. Occultism, for example involves exploring spiritual, mystical, or magical practices that are regarded as being kept secret or hidden from mainstream society and saw significant trends emerge throughout the 19th century as people began seeking to understand knowledge that was rejected by religious authorities and the scientific community.
As some movements gained legitimacy, they blurred the lines between what is considered a cult and a mainstream religion. Established denominations began to be seen as part of a broader spectrum of religious belief, rather than as the only legitimate forms of religion. The distinction between “cults” and “religions” became more about social acceptance and institutional legitimacy than any inherent theological differences.
I don't want to focus too much on cults here because I don't want to insinuate any intrinsic connection between following a religion and following a cult. Though, I want to iterate that from a sociological perspective, the distinction between a religion and a cult hinges on social power and accredited legitimacy rather than any inherent theological or organizational differences.
But, when we consider the changes in the secularized contemporary culture, we can see how this distinction has become more blurred as the power dynamics that shape religious perceptions have led to many people seeing the same coercive and manipulative behaviors of cult leaders in the charismatic and authoritarian leadership styles of modern religious leaders.
The rapid modernization of the economy and society that occured in the Industrial Revolution and the aftermath of both world wars led to a combined focus on economic inequality and poverty from both religious and secular institutions. The pursuit of progress and social justice became tied to the belief in free markets and laissez-faire capitalism, causing political and economic views to dominate over religious influence. People in the 19th century also began losing faith and turning to alchoholism, gambling, and prostitution as young city workers started spending more time in brothels and taverns than churches and temples.
The Third Great Awakening aligned with what's known as the Social Gospel movement. This was also a period when Protestant progressives began to apply Christian ethics and values to social problems and address issues of social justice. Around this time, social religious organizations like the Salvation Army and the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) were formed in London and spread as Christian philanthropists tried to convert and save many of the young people affected by the spread of industrialization.
This movement gained traction as theological liberals were disgusted with problems like poverty, labor issues, crime, public health, etc. It was also a reflection of Christians attempting to reconcile their faith with a changing world dealing with world wars, racial tensions, and what many believed to be an impending apocalypse or Second Coming of Christ.
Religious historians of this time also struggled to fairly document the history of the church, choosing to gloss over the abuses and brutality evident in events like the crusades, the spanish inquisition, and the slave trade. A prime example of this is found in the chronicled work of a British bishop and historian named Mandell Creighton, who believed it wasn't the historian's place to moralize or hold religious leaders responsible for their roles in these historical acts of injustice. This failure to condemn the torture and execution of innocents in favor of indifference and impunity for those in authority attributed to the perception of corruption in the church.
In an 1887 letter to Bishop Creighton, a baron by the name of Lord Acton wrote "I cannot accept your canon that we are to judge Pope and King unlike other men, with a favourable presumption that they did no wrong. If there is any presumption it is the other way against holders of power, increasing as the power increases. Historic responsibility has to make up for the want of legal responsibility. Power tends to corrupt and absoulte power corrupts absoultely. Great men are almost always bad men." This would become one of the most famous quotes in history and lead to a common and widespread view of skepticism in authority and a belief that power and corrution go hand-in-hand (Klaas, 2021).
Nietzsche’s 1882 proclamation of “God is dead” in his book “Thus Spoke Zarathustra” reflected the growing social skepticism towards organized religion and its societal role. This statement signified a bold critique of religious institutions but also a broader existential concern about the foundations of meaning and morality in a rapidly secularizing world.
Nietzsche’s ideas were, in part, influenced by philosophers like Søren Kierkegaard, whose earlier work concerned the complexities of faith, individualism, and the struggle for authentic existence. Kierkegaard’s exploration of the “leap of faith” and his critique of the superficiality of religious practice laid the groundwork for Nietzsche’s death of God as a call to rethink morality and meaning in a world no longer anchored by religious certainties.
This doesn't mean that religious beliefs just died off because philosophers and intellectuals started to embrace secularism. Christian fundamentalism began to emerge in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a reaction to cultural modernism and theological liberalism. Their focus emphasized traditional nuclear family values and the infallibility of Christian biblical doctrines. This propagated Christian conservatism as a political ideology that promoted the view that the United States was founded as a Christian nation and opposed ideals supported by progressives like abortion and LBGT+ rights.
In his book, "Life in the Negative World", author Aaron M. Renn uses sociology as a lens to look at lessons from Christian cultural engagement over the past seventy years and suggests different strategies for churches, institutions, and individual people to live faithfully in what he calls the "negative world"—a culture opposed to Christian values and teachings.
Although Renn's book does an excellent job of tracking cultural shifts in the public sphere to explain how Christianity has been on a trajectory of decline in the U.S., it partly comes from a perspective of victimhood, attributing the decline of adherence to the Evangelical beliefs to just the pluralistic sensibilities of social elites and left-wing policies. He does little to acknowledge the role that the fundamental beliefs of religious leaders, institutions and practitioners have had in shaping the meritocratic ethos that's promoted this so-called New World Order.
Though Renn does acknowledge some of the damage caused by figures like Donald Trump and the current conservative party, suggesting that much of the resistance to the Evangelical movement in today's America stems from decades of leaders using the Gospel to promote their own agendas of nationalism, racism, sexism and a host of other sinful beliefs and behaviors that feel hypocritical to the pietistic mission of Evangelical Christianity. In this sense, theology lost the culture war when those of faith tied their fate to the faithless, as seen in the unapologetic, power-hungry presidency of Trump.
Look, I’m not suggesting that all religious leaders are immoral or corrupt or that all religious people are viewed negatively. These examples just illustrate how socially accredited norms and behaviors can drive broader cultural changes. In future posts, I’ll explore this more, but for now, remember that the impact of social norms and values from individualism and the modern idea of a value-neutral secular state isn’t morally superior to those from religious beliefs. Both religious practices and secular standards like laws and rights deeply influence our sense of self and the way we build our communities—sometimes positively, sometimes negatively.
Let’s focus on the feedback loops that create implicit social changes from the explicit markers of recognition and validation. Its these loops that have contributed to the reduced prominence of established religious communities in mainstream culture as newer forms of dogmatic practices take their place. Today, behaviors and leadership styles that once set established religions apart from new religious movements are scrutinized more equally. This scrutiny prompts us to question "what even constitutes legitimate religious practice in the modern world?"
People now feel more entitled to explore and define their own beliefs, with a growing expectation for equal accountability across all organizations, religious or not. Our ethical and moral standards are increasingly based on humanistic and rational principles, emphasizing personal spiritual journeys over strict adherence to divine commandments.
Today, being seen as a good or virtuous person isn’t about how often you meditate, go to church, or pray. It’s more about your success—your work and the influence you have through your education or status. The rise of beliefs like atheism, agnosticism, and secular humanism reflects this shift, challenging traditional religious authority. Modern spiritual movements and secular beliefs, such as New Age spiritualism, emphasize personal spiritual experiences and empirical skepticism. When I talk to people my age about their religious beliefs, I almost always hear phrases like "I'm spiritual but not religious" or "I just don't trust organized religions."
Because spiritual fulfillment is increasingly defined by personal well-being, mental health, and a sense of purpose, spirituality has become a more personalized and diverse field, reflecting the pluralistic and individualistic values of contemporary society. As traditional religious institutions continue to lose their grip on society, people are increasingly turning to alternative spiritual avenues in search of meaning and a sense of community.
This shift is further fueled by the pervasive influence of capitalist neoliberalism and the growing prominence of the meritocratic ethos in modern culture. In this landscape, activities that were once secular in nature, such as work, fitness and exercise, dietary choices, shopping habits, and media consumption, have all taken on a spiritual dimension for many people, especially in the United States. This is also intensified by the rise of influence and celebrity culture that we talked about in the last blog.
Concepts like self-actualization, self-care, and personal development have become central pillars in the quest for a meaningful existence. As people navigate the complexities of our modern world, they increasingly turn to these practices to cultivate a sense of purpose, belonging, and transcendence. The modern humanist mindset says that we're all the same, existing on a scale that we can hardly fathom, and it's up to us to find purpose and meaning in our own lives.
Unfortunately, these practices can also lead to nihilism, burnout, stress, anxiety, and depression as people now dedicate their lives to competing for success in this new culture. It can also mean that people are more vulnerable and susceptible to blindly conform to any beliefs that question mainstream authority or societal consensus.
In the book "Conspirituality" by Derek Beres, Matthew Remski, and Julian Walker, the authors highlight how the New Age spiritualist movement has created a host of influencers and alt-health practitioners who peddle their beliefs through frauds, cons, and cults. These figures capitalize on the modern focus on personal spiritual experiences by re-interpreting Eastern practices and rituals like yoga, meditation, and herbal healing. They also manipulate empirical skepticism through conspiracy theories about Q-Anon, the Deep State, or the Illuminati.
Recalling our conversation on memes and media, we can see how social media and digital platforms are partly responsible for disseminating New Age and conspiratorial content. The algorithms created by these platforms amplify sensational content, creating echo chambers that reinforce these ideas. Influencers can quickly reach large audiences, spreading their messages and attracting followers.
This environment allows a wide array of spiritual beliefs and practices to flourish, especially those reporting conspiracy theories. As the authors of "Conspirituality" point out, this problem was exacerbated during the Covid-19 pandemic, as people were physically isolated from each other and grappling with personal livelihood challenges and systemic issues across various societal institutions (Beres, 2023).
Being part of any group, especially a religious one, can be a major source of validation that confers both social status and a sense of purpose. Religious groups are unique because they not only validate the values and norms of their members but also provide an explicit framework for what is considered moral and acceptable behavior. These shared elements create a cohesive group identity that distinguishes members from non-members, particularly appealing to people seeking deeper meanings or hidden truths behind societal systems and traditions.
Conspiratorial narratives spread and propagate similarly to religious narratives. They offer simplified explanations for unexplained phenomena and a sense of agency and control. Like religions, they appeal to the argument from incredulity and emphasize conformity through peer pressure tactics, such as social sanctions like criticism or bullying. Questioning the authority or legitimacy of a conspiracy theory becomes impossible, as anyone who questions the narrative is rationalized as being part of the conspiracy, either intentionally as a pawn or unwittingly as a sheep.
We'll discuss this more in a future post, but it's important to understand that secular ideologies are subject to the same social scrutiny as religious forms of accreditation. The transition towards a pluralist, empirically-driven, secular society results from many factors, including the development of scientific consensus and global democratization. However, as we will see, these processes have led to what many call a post-truth society, in which all interpretations and perspectives are viewed as subjective and open to debate, and the validity of any fact or truth is shaped more by endorsement and influence than by any objective law or divine decree.
However, despite the rise of secularization, the secular vs. religious debate continues to be a significant force in contemporary society. Wars and conflicts around the globe are still fueled by these dynamics, with differing beliefs and ideologies clashing over issues of morality, governance, and social order. This ongoing tension underscores the power and influence of both secular and religious frameworks in the accreditation of social norms.
As we move forward, it’s important to understand how these forces interact and shape our world. The next blog post will explore the dynamics of power, authority and bureaucracy and their ideological impact in influencing education, business and governance, further unpacking the rise of the meritocratic framework, and exploring the different ways modern secular institutions now wield influence and control over social dynamics.
I had a lot of fun studying and researching this blog! I recommend checking out some of these books if you're interested in learning more about the social aspects of religions! I also got to go back through old notes and papers from college for inspiration and insights, and this work has also caused me to think more about my own faith and beliefs.
Thanks for reading this!
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References/Further Reading:
Association of Religion Data Archives. (n.d.). Interactive timeline of American religion. Retrieved July 30, 2024, from https://www.thearda.com/us-religion/history/timelines/interactive-display?tid=2
Beres, D., Remski, M., & Walker, J. (2023). Conspirituality. PublicAffairs.
Benson, M. (2016). Death, dying and the afterlife. The Great Courses.
Bivins, J. C. (2018). Thinking about religion and violence. The Great Courses.
Durkheim, E. (1912). Elementary forms of the religious life (J. W. Swain, Trans.). Allen & Unwin.
Fuller, R. B. (1981). Critical path. St. Martin’s Press.
Graeber, D., & Wengrow, D. (2021). The dawn of everything: A new history of humanity. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Harari, Y. N. (2015). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. Harper.
Klaas, B. (2021). Corruptible: Who gets power and how it changes us. Scribner.
Martin, A. (2023). A historical look at ancient Egyptian burial practices. Choice Mutual. Retrieved from https://choicemutual.com/blog/ancient-egyptian-burial-practices/
Norenzayan, A. (2024, July 14). Our God-shaped brains [Audio podcast episode]. In Hidden Brain. Apple Podcasts. https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/hidden-brain/id1028908750?i=1000659309505
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