Part Five: Embracing an anthropological and historical context for understanding how cultural norms and values originate, solidify, and evolve over time.
In the last post, I explored how interpersonal bonds influence our capability to form relationships and navigate different social networks. By applying examples from attachment theory and social networking theories, we were able to learn how social accreditation plays a major role in bridging the connected interplay between intrinsic (personal satisfaction) and extrinsic (societal recognition) rewards to explain that we are not just shaped by our social networks but actively engage with and influence our social environment through processes of validation and sanctioning.
Now I want to use an anthropological lens to look at the historical shift of our culture from informal groups, like tribes and clans, to formal societies with legal codes and institutional norms. By studying human history in terms of validation and sanction systems, I think we'll develop a deeper level of understanding our cultural progression, societal norms, and the evolving nature of social accreditation mechanisms.
Alright, with all that said, let’s do this for the culture.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it became common for people to attribute differences in cultural and social achievements to biological differences among races. As genetic theories of evolution began to become mainstream, the concept of social darwinism began to take place, anthropologists and sociologists began to apply biological concepts like natural selection and survival of the fittest, to theories in sociology, economics and politics.
Proponents of social darwinism, like Herbert Spencer, Thomas Maltus, and Francis Galton began to use Darwin's theory of biological evolution as a basis for explaining human social behavior.
Sir Francis Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin, was a huge proponent of eugenics and held views that linked human abilities and characteristics to our heredity. This perspective, known as biological determinism, suggested that biology was the primary factor determining the capabilities and limits of individuals and societies.
Edward Burnett Tylor, often considered the founder of cultural anthropology, introduced a definition of culture in his seminal work, "Primitive Culture" (1871). Tylor defined culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." His approach emphasized the evolutionary development of culture from simple to complex forms, with progress being our dominant narrative.
This type of thought persisted throughout the 19th century, with anthropologists and ethnologists using the concept of evolutionary progress as the principal characteristic to compare and analyze people from different cultures.
Lewis Henry Morgan was influential in developing the theory of social evolution, which categorized human societies from savagery through barbarism to civilization, a framework that was reflective of the prevailing colonial and Eurocentric mindset of his time. His work, especially in "Ancient Society" (1877), explored kinship and social structures of different societies, providing a comparative basis for understanding cultural evolution.
These views deeply impacted Western thought and emphasized nationalistic and racial differences which led to a collective support in eugenics, racism, imperialism, and fascism throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. I will speak more on how theories of cultural evolution and social darwinism impacted racial, political, and economic theories in future posts.
For now, we'll skip past the civil rights debates and bigotry-inspired pseudoscience and explore how anthropology itself has seen a major transition, from interpreting human progress solely through biological perspectives to recognizing it as a result of environmental and historical influences. Franz Boas is often regarded as the father of modern American anthropology and was a critic of the evolutionary assumptions of his predecessors like Morgan and Tylor.
Boas introduced the idea of cultural relativism, emphasizing the importance of understanding each culture in its own context without comparison to others. This approach challenged the linear progression models and considered the role of local history and the environment in shaping cultures.
Boas and his students highlighted the richness and value of cultural diversity. They argued against ethnocentrism—the evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one’s own culture—and advocated for this new way of understanding and appreciating cultural practices within their own historical and environmental contexts.
One of his notable students was the 20th century novelist Zora Neal Hurston. Hurston's work investigated the cultural diffusion aspect of folklore. She showed that by interpreting and deconstucting folklore, we could gain a fascinating understanding of culture, implying that such stories were used as adaptive strategies for sharing the perspectives of marginalized voices in a community.
The shift from a biological to environmental/historical perspective in anthropology led by Franz Boas promoted cultural relativity and diversity, challenging biases and enhancing research depth. It would go on to influence future anthropologists and scholars, fostering a more inclusive understanding of human culture.
All this is to say that humans and our societies evolved not just genetically but also culturally and our understanding of ourselves and our culture has evolved collectively. It's important for me to explain this historical context because a key aspect of cultural dynamics that SAT addresses is the tension between cultural change and our resistance to it. The theory explores how new ideas, practices, or technologies can be accredited and assimilated into the cultural fabric, or conversely, how they may face resistance and sanction.
Building off Tylor's definition, the study of culture typically includes learning how values, beliefs, norms, customs, laws, knowledge, art, and various skills and habits are acquired by individuals as part of society. It’s what defines our personal identity through our various roles, expectations, and communication styles.
Our collective identity too, is fostered through culture via our shared heritage, symbols, rituals, and values, which promote our social cohesion, common goals, and societal progress. It influences how our societies innovate, incorporate new ideas, and modify existing practices for survival and growth.
Essentially, culture is the bedrock of both our individual and collective identities, deeply influencing how we think, behave, and interact with each other. It is both a product of social interactions and a guide for them, continually evolving as societies develop and face new challenges. The importance of culture lies in its ability to unify us, provide meaning and direction, and ensure the continuity and progress of societies.
The feedback loops in social accreditation processes facilitate cultural transmission, a form of social learning where knowledge, norms, and technologies are passed from one individual to another and from one generation to the next. This transmission is crucial for the accumulation of cultural knowledge and the development of technologies and social structures.
The Agricultural Revolution:
Let's explore an example of cultural transmission through agriculture.
As our pre-agricultural ancestors transitioned from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled farmers and tribal communities, our societies progressed.
Agriculture played a key role in enabling food surpluses, and this extra food facilitated our shift to sedentary lifestyles and subsequently triggered population growth and technological advancements.
This shift led to more organized social systems, blending with old religious beliefs and new legal and financial agreements. These developments continued to mold societal norms and values through various forms of recognition, both overt and subtle.
The necessity to track crop yields and trades prompted the evolution from parietal art and cave paintings to written symbols and numerical systems, marking the beginnings of written language and money of account, or recorded systems of credit. For example, around 5000 years ago in ancient Mesopotamia, city dwellers had a fixed rate for exchanging silver and grain. Citizens would record debts on clay tablets, and then settle the debts at harvest time. These early records of financial transactions through established credit are also found in different areas around similar time periods, such as in the hieroglyphs of Pharaonic Egypt. (we'll talk more about the advent of money later.)
Agriculture is a perfect example because the behaviors and technologies that led to the agricultural revolution were driven by cultural transmission, not biological evolution. People had to cooperate in new ways, manage shared resources and develop structures of governance. The sharing of farming techniques and development of new tools gave us an ability to manipulate and adapt to our environments using our collective ingenuity and cultural solutions rather than relying on biological adaptations.
Interestingly, the change from hunter-gatherer diets to more staple-based agricultural diets had significant impacts on our health such as dental problems, changes in our stature, and the spread of new diseases. These changes were the result of dietary habits shaped by agricultural practices, not direct genetic adaptations. However, over time, they influenced our biology, illustrating the evolutionary feedback loop between culture and biology.
Evolution from the selection pressures of cultural and genetic adaptations are now understood to occur at a much more rapid pace than natural selection through genes alone. Lactase persistence is one of the clearest examples of this co-evolution in humans. Lactase, the enzyme that aids in digesting the milk sugar lactose, typically decreases in production after the weaning phase in many mammals, including most humans. Nevertheless, some people maintain the ability to produce lactase into adulthood. The estimated age of lactase persistence-associated mutations aligns within the timeframes of animal domestication and the cultural tradition of dairying.
As animal husbandry techniques began to spread, we began to herd specific animals like cattle and goats for dairying. This meant these animals were able to provide milk as an ongoing resource as opposed to being immediately hunted for meat and hides. The resulting dairy economy and new culturing and pasteurizing techniques would lead to more dairy products like cheeses, butter, yogurt, etc. which in turn, propagated the spread of lactase persistence, as processed dairy foods became easier to digest.
Lactase persistence is common among people of Northern European decent, but across the world most people are lactase non-persistent, and as adults, they are affected by lactose intolerance at varying degrees. Despite this fact, milk consumption has been heavily favored and promoted as a nutritional staple in modern diets and was a cornerstone in school nutritional programs.
SAT highlights the feedback mechanisms in cultural transmission, where behaviors and beliefs are continuously reinforced or modified based on social responses. Which is crucial in understanding how cultures evolve over time and adapt to new conditions or integrate new elements. It explains how societies react to and deal with behaviors that do not conform to the established cultural norms, through mechanisms of social sanction or, alternatively, through eventual acceptance and redefinition of norms.
Cultural transmission can occur through several modes:
Vertical transmission: Cultural traits and norms are transmitted from parents to their offspring. This is often seen in the transmission of language, religious beliefs, and moral values.
Horizontal transmission: Culture is transmitted between individuals of the same generation, such as peers sharing slang or fashion trends.
Oblique transmission: This involves transmission from one generation to another, but not directly from parent to child. It can include teachers, community leaders, or media influences.
Cultural transmission also involves both active and passive processes. Active transmission occurs when culture is taught explicitly, such as through educational systems or religious instruction. Passive transmission happens through everyday social interactions and observations, where individuals absorb norms and behaviors by watching and mimicking others.
These processes of cultural transmission can occur through observations and imitation. This obviously resonates with SAT, showing that the idea of social validation through implicit and explicit validation processes occurs at a societal level just as it does at the level of the individual or peers.
These different terms may seem confusing or redundant, but they help us understand the different dynamic and interactive process that are continuously shaped and reshaped through both intergenerational transmission and social interactions.
From the work of anthropologists across various fields, we’ve learned a lot about how early human societies developed different rituals, myths, and designated roles as forms of social accreditation. Social roles like leaders and healers emerged for efficient resource management, leading to specialization and hierarchies in society's development. Rituals played a vital role in early societies by marking life events and fostering group cohesion. Myths transmitted knowledge and societal values, uniting communities. Each of these practices and roles were crucial for explaining natural phenomena, establishing community bonds, and setting the foundations for societal norms and hierarchies.
When our ancestors engaged in communal rituals and shared myths, they not only showed their dedication to the group but also gained social validation from their peers.
Societies that could learn collectively and incorporate new behaviors or technologies into their culture thrived. Group survival and cohesion were maintained by reinforcing positive norms through social approval and penalizing negative behaviors. This continuous cycle allowed societies to adapt to challenges and changes, with norms evolving in response to internal and external factors. This ability, to collectively adjust norms and values in response to evolving conditions, showcases the adaptability and resilience of early human societies.
When our traditional norms and values fail to be accredited by society—either because they are no longer relevant, or due to rapid changes that leave no time for new norms to be established—citizens may find themselves in a state of normlessness. This lack of clear guidelines and expectations mirrors the state of anomie.
The concept of "anomie" is a significant one in sociology, primarily developed by Émile Durkheim, one of the pioneers of the discipline. Anomie refers to a state or condition of society (or a particular segment of society) where there is a breakdown or absence of social norms and values.
In his works, "Le Suicide" (Suicide) and "De la division du travail social" (The Division of Labor in Society), Durkheim argues that anomie emerges in a society when there is a disconnection between common social values and the standards of individual people, which can result from rapid societal change or social inequality. This disjunction leads to uncertainty and alienation, with people no longer knowing what to expect from one another.
As an example, Durkheim argued that industrialization led to a labor environment characterized by excessive specialization, where most people felt alienated and morally directionless. This alienation occurred because the traditional norms and social ties that bound people together in pre-industrial societies were weakened or broken in the industrial age, which did not yet have a new set of norms strong enough to replace them.
We can look at the Great Depression or the fall of communism in Eastern Europe as other historical examples of anomie. The old norms and ways of life that were guided by the state were suddenly displaced without proper new systems in place to replace them, leading to a period of anomie characterized by increases in crime, suicide, and social unrest. These examples show how collective distress can occur when social mechanisms, like employment and economic success, which validate social status and self-worth, fail.
SAT similarly suggests that social validation and sanctions are crucial in maintaining order and coherence within a society. Without them, the implicit and explicit accreditation of behaviors and beliefs becomes erratic, contributing to this state of anomie.
Durkheim’s concept of anomie implies a loss of social capital, where we feel disconnected from the social networks and norms that contribute to our value and identity. SAT expands on this by highlighting how the absence or weakening of social accreditation mechanisms can lead to a depreciation of social capital, making it difficult for us to know how to act and interact in socially acceptable ways.
I will have a lot more to say about this when I begin detailing the outcomes and impacts of social accreditation, namely how adherence or deviation from norms affects societal stability and the role of dissent, innovation, and change in reshaping social accreditation standards.
Before I began tackling the broader topics of hierarchies and power dynamics within societies, I feel like it's important to really understand the different aspects of culture and how they've evolved over the course of history, this will hopefully set the stage for us to fully appreciate how dominant groups, through economic, political, or cultural power, have shaped and codified standards and norms.
So the next few posts will be a sub-series within the SAT series focusing on specific areas of cultural development. I don't want this entire thing to get side tracked, so I will try to focus on a few main points, like language, religion, knowledge/education, art/media, technology and conflict/war etc. If possible, I may even combine a few of these to keep from digressing from the larger series on SAT, but I believe that a deep dive into each of these categories of culture will help lay the groundwork for really understanding the potential impacts for applying SAT at the societal level. So, thanks for reading this, the next post will cover language as a mediator of knowledge and culture!
If you like this blog, buy me a coffee! https://ko-fi.com/callmebryy
References/Further Reading:
Bregman, R. (2021). Humankind: A Hopeful History. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Fuller, R. B. (1981). Critical Path. St. Martin's Press.
Harari, Y. N. (2015). Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. Harvill Secker.
Henrich, J. (2016). The Secret of Our Success: How Culture Is Driving Human Evolution, Domesticating Our Species, and Making Us Smarter. Princeton University Press.
Lacy, S. M. (2017). Anthropology and the Study of Humanity. The Great Courses.
Spencer, M., & Lalgee, R. (2008). Sociological studies, overview. In L. Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, & Conflict (2nd ed., pp. 1970-1982). Academic Press.